- Rudder
Egyptian tomb paintings from around 1420 B.C.E. depict a ship fitted with steering oars on either side of the stern and are thought to be the earliest evidence of the use of the rudder principle, by which water flowing past the boat's hull is redirected. The same technique was long used on Mediterranean cargo ships, but the Vikings preferred a single oar, mounted to the starboard side of the stern of their longboats. The oar could be easily lifted in shallow water but was not always effective in heavy seas, when it could be raised out of the water by the waves.
A rudder is most efficient when mounted along the vessel's centerline, and in accordance with this Chinese vessels have been designed with hinged rudders on the stern since the first century B.C.E. There is no evidence of such a practice in Europe until some eleven centuries later, and centerline rudders did not become widespread until the thirteenth century C.E. It is not certain whether this change came about through independent development in northern Europe or by a transfer of knowledge from China. Either way, the rudder was a key enabler for the subsequent rise of Western fleets to naval superpowers.
In the early 1900s the Wright brothers used vertical rudders behind the tailfins of their pioneering gliders to steer their first powered aircraft during its first flight of 1903. Modern aircraft use similar rudder systems to control side-to-side yawing motion. The rudder, albeit with a host of variations and specializations, is still the means by which we steer not only our ships but a multitude of other craft both in the water and the sky.
SEE ALSO: DUGOUT CANOE, ROWBOAT, CANAL, SAIL, ENCLOSED HARBOR, METAL ANCHOR, SEXTANT
- Saddle
Horsemen end the age of bareback riding.
It is unclear when humans first began to domesticated and ride horses-evidence from cave paintings in France suggests that horses might have been bridged as long ago as 15,000 B.C.E. But while early riders had the use of bits, bridles, and harnesses to control their mounts, they sat uncomfortably on little more than folded blankets or cloth, or rode bareback. Asian horsemen created a felt and wood saddle around 300 B.C.E, but it was not until around 100 C.E. that riders gained a saddle that offered genuine comfort.
The first padded, framed saddles were developed in Han Chin sometime between 25 and 220 C.E. They consisted of a wooden frame covered in a stiff material such as leather, padded with cloth and shaped for comfort. To ensure a good ride, the pommel, or front, and the cantle, or rear, of the saddle were raised above the seat. What began as a simple but effective means of sitting on a horse soon became a status symbol, as riders decorated the leather of their saddles with inscribed designs and personal emblems and fashioned them with intricate ivory and other inlays.
Although the saddle had a great effect on horsemanship, its full effect was not at first realized, for the rider still remained insecure perched on his seat. It was not until the invention of the stirrup shortly
afterward that the saddle truly came into its own.
SEE ALSO: METALWORKING, BUCKLE, STIRRUP, HORSESHOE, HORSE COLLAR